Purpose: This research investigated if the protective factors that have been theorized in North America, Europe, Australia and New Zealand as positive influences to developmental adaptations in the face of risk are similar to the protective factors found in Japan.  Furthermore, risks that have been identified as particularly deleterious to western populations were assessed to determine if they were present in Japan and had a similar negative impact on adolescent development.  In addition, risks that had been viewed as a particular concern in the Japanese popular press were also measured.

Method: An ecological framework was used to assess  protective factors and risk factors.  Data were collected in 2002 from 802 post-secondary students, in Sapporo, Hokkaido, Japan.   This study examined the relationship between both protective factors and risk factors and six outcome variables: internalizing behavior, delinquency, drug use, alcohol use, tobacco use, and sexual behavior.

Results: Fourteen of the twenty-six protective factors investigated were found to be predictive in the Japanese sample in at least one regression equation.  Furthermore, twenty-four of the twenty-five investigated risk factors were found to be harmful to Japanese youth.

Implications for Practice: Protective and risk factors were sometimes different for males and females.  Prevention/ intervention programs need to be created to address issues by gender and not merely by age.  Furthermore, specific protective and risk factors were pertinent to particular outcomes.  However, there were no protective or risk factors that were predictive across all outcomes.  Thereby, to promote resilience in adolescent development,  programs are needed that emphasize multiple foci, and interventions in multiple contexts: family, school, neighborhood, and peer network.