Methods:  Interviews were conducted with a stratified random sample of 84 welfare clients from an urban county participating in Minnesota's welfare reform.  Somali, Hmong, Latino, Native American, African-American, and European-American participants were interviewed, using both qualitative and quantitative measures and the Life History Calendar technique. Data were collected for a 42-month period on workforce participation, wages, transportation, childcare, housing, health insurance coverage, children's emotional well-being, parent-child relationships, and school participation.  Scales measuring parents' social support, employment commitment, conscientiousness, and emotional stability were also included. Dependent variables were analyzed by the extent of labor force participation and by ethnic/immigrant status.

Results:  The mean wage for full-time employment was $10, less than a livable wage. Part-time employment paid still less.  Extensive workers were much more likely to be uninsured than moderate or minimal workers.  The jobs taken did not typically permit career advancement.  Many participants reported difficulty in finding adequate child care; lack of time for family routines; negative effects on parent-child relationships and children's emotional well-being; substantial gaps in health insurance coverage (particularly for those who worked more extensively); and lack ability to pay for medical and dental treatment.

Implications for practice: Publicly subsidized health insurance needs to be continued for some time after participants find work. Greater subsidy of childcare is needed to expand childcare opportunities, including evening childcare.  Immigrant clients need more opportunities for English language training before being required to take jobs. Immigrant clients need to be provided counselors of similar language and culture whenever possible.